An Empty Temple
An overview of what changed in scripture before the first century would be incomplete without considering the tremendous changes that took place in the brief period before and after Babylonian exile in the 6th century. It is my experience that these changes are often glossed over in Sunday schools; probably not as much in Sabbath schools. A few of these differences, perhaps the most important ones, actually do not even come up that often in in-depth, secular courses on the Hebrew Bible, even though they supremely changed the very nature of YHVH’s relationship with Israel, at least according to her national narrative. For the glory of God had indeed departed, and we have much historical testimony to this effect, especially in the Bible itself. Maybe this bias among at least Protestants is because they ditched some of the only histories we have of this period when they finally kicked books out of a canon that had been used for the previous couple of millennia, since before Christ, such as 1 Maccabees. But regardless of how this oversight persists, how could we have missed that God was gone?!
Some of these changes are also often largely overlooked in secular classes, perhaps because they are shifts in Israel’s story, not in what secular historians actually believed happened. Yet it is this story that still shapes the world, not provable history, whatever that was.
God’s Light
The foreshadowings of the exile begin very early in the narratives of Israel’s history, even as God was first building the nation. When the author/editors of the book of Samuel looked back to the time of the prophet Samuel (11th century BCE), when YHVH’s priests still served at the Tabernacle, they expressed that fact by saying that the lamp of YHVH had not yet gone out.[1] The extinguishing of the lamp in this account had occurred during the reign of those kings of Judah who were not faithful to YHVH,[2] and it would be relit under reformers such as Josiah. But it would be snuffed out for an entire generation in the 6th century during the Babylonian captivity, which was the earliest the book could have taken its final form. It is perhaps significant that God’s lamp is not mentioned in the histories of Ezra and Nehemiah, which tell of the rebuilding of Jerusalem, nor in any of the other prophets of the time. We only read of it in the Deuterocanon, as in 1 Maccabees, when it once again is extinguished, for three years this time.
It should also be noted that David is referred to as the lamp of Israel.[3] That too will become significant when we see just what was quenched during the second Temple period. But here, I’d like to point out that the biblical authors were quite aware that God’s promises went unfulfilled. Some psalms supposed to have been written during the reign of David often plea with God for salvation to come out of Zion, and for God to restore his people and the promises of his covenants.[4] One of my favorite psalms is 89, where the author wants God to explain what happened to David’s rule. The author begins with praising God for keeping his covenant, then in verse 38 admits that God has rejected the anointed sons of David. “How long, O YHVH? Will you hide yourself forever?” How long, indeed. It’s been a little while by now.
The Ark
We’ve already seen how the Biblical narrative separates the ark from the Tabernacle for a couple of generations, so that it is God’s anointed/messiah David who brings it up to Jerusalem, after some trouble, and the son of David who brings it into the newly constructed Temple, ca. 957 BCE.[5] Yet why do we see Josiah (ca. 640-609) telling the Levites that they need no longer carry it, and that they should bring it into the house of YHVH?[6] Note that the histories were not completed until at least the exilic period (587 and after), when they had no ark at all, so we should not be surprised that they do not emphasize the ark. But why these curious differences in details about when and where it was? And why is there no definite mention of when it was finally lost? Presumably it would have been lost at the time of the destruction of the first Temple; it seems likely they would have mentioned it if they still had it after that, since the Bible speaks of the other implements of the Temple being returned in Ezra 5. Later books tell us that Jeremiah took the ark and hid it, where it currently awaits the arrival of the Messiah and yet another Temple.[7]
We’ve also already noted the biblical authors’ lack of detail about the earlier movements of the ark as well.456 They simply mention it being at various places, such as Bethel and Shiloh, without mentioning why it was moved, at least until the Philistines captured it. Some of the later details regarding its movement after David’s rule are even sparser. Most believers probably just assumed it stayed in the Temple during the four centuries of the Davidic dynasty, but according to the Bible it hadn’t, since Josiah, as a quintessential “David”, brings it in again. This is the last time the physical presence of the ark is mentioned in the biblical narrative, within a few years of the fall of Jerusalem.
There are also interesting details about what we’re told was in or near the ark. Early in the narrative, in Exodus 25, they put the “testimony” into the ark, which was commanded by God. Deuteronomy 10 says they placed the two tablets in there; interestingly, Exodus 31:26 says that they were to place the Book of the Law beside the ark. Exodus 16 says that they put a jar of manna before it. Aaron’s rod that budded (Numbers 17) was also said to have been placed “in front of” the ark. In 1 Kings 8, hundreds of years later, we’re told that the ark only actually contained the tablets, though Hebrews 9 says that it contained the manna, Aaron’s rod, and the tablets, which is also found in rabbinic tradition.[8] Hebrews 9 is making a theological point based on “shadows”[9], so we’ll leave that aside for the moment, but it is interesting that it adds the detail that the jar of manna was gold. This is yet again probably an example of the New Testament writers using other sources in addition to the Hebrew Bible.
There is one final mention of the ark which we should note, in Jeremiah 3. The author seems to be already anticipating the loss of the ark. He looks forward to that glorious time when God will finally establish his rule, when Jerusalem will finally become the seat of a permanent kingdom, and all the nations will flow into it. And he says that the ark will no longer be remembered or missed, nor will it ever be made again. What a strange thing to say, unless the book were written in a time when it was already gone. Recall that Jeremiah was there when the Babylonians destroyed Jerusalem.
We should note a few more differences in the post-exilic period, then we’ll come back to the significance of the missing ark. The first Temple was built with direct revelation of the design, the second was not; although Ezekiel gave a pattern, they did not follow it.[10] The first Temple was built after they had conquered the land; the second was built in a land that they essentially did not own, and they were surrounded by hostiles. The first Temple was built by the Davidic monarchy; the second only with foreign patronage; Cyrus himself is called the Lord’s messiah.[11].
The first Temple and the royal palace were build using similar materials, and in succession; there was no such project or Davidic king when the second Temple was built, so nor did God’s Temple have a royal palace to go with it. Not only was God absent, but so was his monarch. Likewise, the first Temple was built during a period of rest from their enemies, for the narrative states that David had subdued Israel’s enemies, so Solomon ruled during a period of peace. During the construction of the second Temple, however, the people had to work with their weapons at hand, and they had no authority beyond the ruins of its walls, where there was often threat of their enemies uniting against them. The work was even shut down for several years by the emperor: if God caused Cyrus to decree that they would rebuild it, why would he allow it to be shut down?[12] Sure, it says that the people were slack,[13] but they were also under the rule of Persians who forced the work to stop, and they were not allowed to continue until a different emperor came to power years later. And unlike the first Temple that was built all at once without stoppage, the second Temple’s altar was first built, with hopes that God would protect them during the construction; many years passed while the site lay in ruins before the project was reinstated; and the city wall was not constructed until about two generations had gone by and Nehemiah was governor! There would be a brief and tenuous independence under the Hasmoneans in the second century, but they were not of the line of David, and it was very short lived. The Jews are still awaiting God’s kingdom, even after the destruction of that Temple, since 70 CE.
God Was Gone
Let us now return to the topic of the missing ark. It was ultimately just a fancy box. The identity of Israel did not necessarily depend on its presence, or those items that went with it. But one thing that went with it was of supreme importance, and that was God himself. For the ark was where God would meet with Moses in the cloud, where God would reveal his will, both for prophetic revelation and judicial matters.[14] All the references of “before the Lord” where Israel’s most important decisions were made by God—their locus was right there above the mercy seat on top of the ark.[15] It was also where the Aaronic high priest was to approach on the Day of Atonement, which was ostensibly essential to the preservation of God’s people, despite there being generations when this could not have been possible, as highlighted above.452 The cloud of God’s presence is only mentioned within the Torah, within the time of Moses, with only one exception: the cloud is said to have descended on the Temple when Solomon first dedicated it. The actual disappearance of the cloud is never explicitly mentioned, as with the disappearance of the ark.
There is a very significant detail in the account of the loss of the ark when the Philistines captured it, set in the time of Samuel, half a millennium before the exile. It says that the glory of YHVH had departed Israel.[16] It’s hard to imagine a worse foreshadowing in the story of the people of Israel. And thus we arrive at what is the most glaring and striking difference between the first and second Temple periods: the loss of the shekhinah itself, God’s very presence or dwelling with them, which was so important to the epic narrative of the Torah.
While the absence of God was a huge difference between the Second Temple and earlier times, it was indeed found in the very narratives of that history. Recall that much of the narratives contain foreshadowing and etiological stories. Even before the stories of the cloud and fire over the ark, when Moses and Joshua led the people, where was their God for those generations they spent in Egypt? Moses had to ask God who he should say sent him; in other words, he had to tell them who God was! Then after the time of Joshua, we see periods when they forgot God, over and over. The same story is repeated right after the reign of Solomon came to an end, for the next few centuries. But back all the way up to the time of the Patriarchs, when Israel’s family first went down into Egypt. There is no mention of a presence or revelation of God in the stories of Joseph, or even angels, only an overriding providence that seemed to be orchestrating events to make him sovereign over all people, a clear motif that would be repeated with the messianic covenant later. God does not speak directly to anyone in this lengthy narrative, but only in dreams that must be interpreted. There is no prophet in the story of Joseph, except perhaps in Joseph’s God-given ability to interpret dreams.[17] God never once speaks directly to even him! It has accurately been observed that the Bible can be extremely laconic, to the point that it often leaves us wondering what is meant by a given passage. When it pauses to give lengthier details of a story or someone’s speech, you can be sure that such passages are of great import for the author’s purpose.[18] Consider now that the story of Joseph takes up about the last quarter of the lengthy book of Genesis, and that it segways the entire narrative of Genesis into perhaps the greatest story of all time, the Exodus; in this context, one can see that Joseph’s story is extremely important. And this includes the detail that explicit references to God’s presence, speech, or direct action are entirely absent from it. God had spoken to Jacob, but does not speak again in the story from the time they went down into Egypt until Moses four generations later!
A Very Different Existence
“The absence of all these things certainly left its mark on the entire Temple, and anybody visiting it would have understood that while it was the house of God, God was not at home.”
—Yeshivat Har Etzion, “The Differences Between the First and Second Temples”[19]
Thus in the second Temple period, the people finally went without their God. Although the return from captivity was portrayed as a second exodus, it was very different from that first glorious exodus of their past. No longer was there a cloud by day and fire by night to guide and protect them. Often in the time of Moses, God had threatened to leave his people because of their sin, yet Moses always managed to convince him to go with them. But in this second exodus, there was no Moses to do so. Nor was there any great prophet who got the burning-bush declaration that God was finally releasing his people, with great signs and wonders. Instead we have accounts like Ezra 8, when he told the king he didn’t need an armed escort, and yet he hoped and prayed that he wouldn’t. And, unlike in the time of Moses, there were multiple groups that left at different times. Nor was it all the children of Israel that returned, but only a small minority.
So we see another very significant difference between the first and second temple periods, also foreshadowed in the beginning of 1 Samuel, chapter 3. It says that the word of the Lord was rare in those days, probably due to the people’s faithlessness. Of course, God would usher in his Davidic kingship under the initial guidance of one of the greatest prophets, Samuel. And many prophets are mentioned under subsequent kings. However, it has not gone unnoticed that prophets are rarely mentioned in the post exilic period. Yes, there are Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi. Some even consider Ezra and/or Nehemiah prophets. Yet despite these, there does not seem to be the same degree of revelation as in previous times. Early rabbinical teachings agree with this, viewing the Scripture itself as sort of a replacement for the presence for these men and women of God, and even the teachings of the scribes as a legitimate expansion on the Torah.[20] But even the biblical narrative itself seems to suggest this: instead of a prophet like Moses standing before the people, preaching God’s law, as in Deuteronomy, Nehemiah 8 says that the exiles stood to hear Gods will from a book, ostensibly written by past prophets. There was no current prophet to deliver that message! We even see the Levites explaining the message to the people, not with special prophetic knowledge, but with knowledge of the prophetic books. By the time of Christ, yes, Luke mentions a couple of prophets, but it is not prophets that Jesus encounters in Jerusalem, but teachers, whom even he admits legitimately sit in the seat of Moses.[21] And those teachers, unlike prophets, did not presume to speak with prophetic authority, even though their interpretation and binding of scriptural teaching on the people had a similar effect.[22]
Because these differences were so stark, it has been cogently argued that the people of Israel after returning from Babylon still regarded themselves to be in a state of exile. Since the release of N.T. Wright’s argument to this effect[23], some scholars have tried to argue to the contrary, though many still agree with Wright.[24] While it may be a struggle to reach back to the 6th and 5th centuries BCE to discover how the returned exiles believed (or perhaps more interestingly, the majority of Jews who remained in the diaspora), the beliefs of first century Jews are much better documented. And even for those who believed that the Christ[25] had come, there were at least some who still regarded Israel to be in exile! Just check out the first couple of chapters of 1 Peter. And, as we’ve already seen, many of the authors of the New Testament, even though they believed Jesus was the Messiah, were still waiting on him to come back to restore all things.[26] In other words, he had not yet done so, and they were still merely sojourners among the nations, awaiting that kingdom.[27]
An Eternal…Hope?
One of the most beautiful expressions of Israel’s yearnings for God’s eternal rule through a son of David is expressed in psalm 132. And it is a full expectation of fulfillment, not just partial. Even the ark is mentioned. There certainly has been no full earthly fulfillment of Davidic rule for more than two and a half millennia. But throughout the prophets, from the Hebrew Bible through to the New Testament, there’s been no sign that hope in this promise is anything but eternal.
[1] 1 Samuel 3:3
[2] 2 Chronicles 29:7
[3] 2 Samuel 21:17; 1 Kings 11:36; 15:4; 2 Kings 8:19
[4] E.g., 14:7
[5] 2 Chronicles 1:4; 5:1-10. See also footnote 452.
[6] 2 Chronicles 35:3. Of course the ark could have been removed by kings who used the Temple for pagan worship. But I believe the movement of the ark is an important, meaningful part of the entire historical narrative.
[7] 2 Maccabees 2
[8] In the Mishnaic book Yoma 52b, which also includes the golden rats and tumors that the Philistines placed inside right before the reign of Saul began (I Samuel 6). An account of the hiding of the ark is at least as old as the II Maccabees, ca. mid second century BCE; the ark, therefore, had probably been lost for centuries by that point, one more piece of evidence that it probably did not come back with the exiles.
[9] E.g., Hebrews 8:5; 10:1
[10] See chapter 4 above.
[11] It has even been argued that Gentile construction was the reason why the Shekhina was gone (Yoma 9b-10a), but I would suggest that the biblical authors would have never come to such a conclusion, as Gentiles were heavily involved in even the construction of Solomon’s Temple.
[12] Ezra 1:1, 2; 4:1-6:15
[13] Haggai chastises the people for their slackness.
[14] Exodus 25:22
[15] Leviticus 16; this was almost certainly not the only place that judicial decisions took place, but it was certainly the quintessential one.
[16] 1 Samuel 3:21
[17] There is one exception, but it does not involve Joseph, when Jacob/Israel is on his way to Egypt, God speaks to him in Beersheba. But even then it is only in a dream. It is interesting that Joseph himself never received direct communication.
[18] The Art of Biblical Narrative, by Robert Alter, ch. 1
[19] This article is on his website.
[20] E.g., Shir HaSharim Rabbah, 1:2:7; Berakhot 1:4:2; Sifrei Devarim 115:1; Eruvin 21b:8-10. Tractate Kallah Rabbati 10:14 goes so far as to say that the words of the scribes are dearer than the words of the Torah. These Talmudic sources can be read at sefaria.org.
[21] Matthew 23:2, 3
[22] E.g., Matthew 7:29; 21:23
[23] Paul and the Faithfulness of God, and Christian Origins and the Question of God.
[24] E.g., see “The Concept of Exile in Late Second Temple Judaism: A Review of Recent Scholarship”, by Nicholars G. Piotrowski, Currents in Biblical Research, 15(2), 214–247
[25] Recall that “Christ” is merely from the Greek word for messiah.
[26] Acts 3:21
[27] Of course there are also mentions of spiritual fulfillment of the establishment of the kingdom and of Christ’s reign, e.g., Colossians 1:13; Revelation 1:6; 1 Timothy 6:15. For further discussion, see chapter 8 below.